TEACHING STRATEGIES

Institutions of higher learning across the nation are responding to political, economic, social and technological pressures to be more responsive to students' needs and more concerned about how well students are prepared to assume future societal roles. Faculty are already feeling the pressure to lecture less, to make learning environments more interactive, to integrate technology into the learning experience, and to use collaborative learning strategies when appropriate.

Some of the more prominent strategies are outlined below. For more information about the use of these and other pedagogical approaches, contact the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning at 703-993-8773 (Fairfax Campus).

Lecture. For many years, the lecture method was the most widely used instructional strategy in college classrooms. Nearly 80% of all U.S. college classrooms in the late 1970s reported using some form of the lecture method to teach students (Cashin, 1990). Although the usefulness of other teaching strategies is being widely examined today, the lecture still remains an important way to communicate information.

Used in conjunction with active learning teaching strategies, the traditional lecture can be an effective way to achieve instructional goals. The advantages of the lecture approach are that it provides a way to communicate a large amount of information to many listeners, maximizes instructor control and is non-threatening to students. The disadvantages are that lecturing minimizes feedback from students, assumes an unrealistic level of student understanding and comprehension, and often disengages students from the learning process causing information to be quickly forgotten.

The following recommendations can help make the lecture approach more effective (Cashin, 1990):

1. Fit the lecture to the audience

2. Focus your topic - remember you cannot cover everything in one lecture

3. Prepare an outline that includes 5-9 major points you want to cover in one lecture

4. Organize your points for clarity

5. Select appropriate examples or illustrations

6. Present more than one side of an issue and be sensitive to other perspectives

7. Repeat points when necessary

8. Be aware of your audience - notice their feedback

9. Be enthusiastic - you don’t have to be an entertainer but you should be excited by your topic.

(from Cashin, 1990, pp. 60-61)

Case Method. Providing an opportunity for students to apply what they learn in the classroom to real-life experiences has proven to be an effective way of both disseminating and integrating knowledge. The case method is an instructional strategy that engages students in active discussion about issues and problems inherent in practical application. It can highlight fundamental dilemmas or critical issues and provide a format for role playing ambiguous or controversial scenarios.

Course content cases can come from a variety of sources. Many faculty have transformed current events or problems reported through print or broadcast media into critical learning experiences that illuminate the complexity of finding solutions to critical social problems. The case study approach works well in co-operative learning or role playing environments to stimulate critical thinking and awareness of multiple perspectives.

Discussion. There are a variety of ways to stimulate discussion. For example, some faculty begin a lesson with a whole group discussion to refresh students’ memories about the assigned reading(s). Other faculty find it helpful to have students list critical points or emerging issues, or generate a set of questions stemming from the assigned reading(s). These strategies can also be used to help focus large and small group discussions.

Obviously, a successful class discussion involves planning on the part of the instructor and preparation on the part of the students. Instructors should communicate this commitment to the students on the first day of class by clearly articulating course expectations. Just as the instructor carefully plans the learning experience, the students must comprehend the assigned reading and show up for class on time, ready to learn.

Active Learning. Meyers and Jones (1993) define active learning as learning environments that allow "students to talk and listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach course content through problem-solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities -- all of which require students to apply what they are learning" (p. xi). Many studies show that learning is enhanced when students become actively involved in the learning process. Instructional strategies that engage students in the learning process stimulate critical thinking and a greater awareness of other perspectives. Although there are times when lecturing is the most appropriate method for disseminating information, current thinking in college teaching and learning suggests that the use of a variety of instructional strategies can positively enhance student learning. Obviously, teaching strategies should be carefully matched to the teaching objectives of a particular lesson. For more information about teaching strategies, see the list of college teaching references in Appendix N.

Assessing or grading students' contributions in active learning environments is somewhat problematic. It is extremely important that the course syllabus explicitly outlines the evaluation criteria for each assignment whether individual or group. Students need and want to know what is expected of them. For more information about grading, see the Evaluating Student Work section contained in this Guide.

Co-operative Learning. Co-operative Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal. The term 'Collaborative Learning' is often used as a synonym for co-operative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader range of group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating student/faculty discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (Bruffee, 1993). Both approaches stress the importance of faculty and student involvement in the learning process.

When integrating co-operative or collaborative learning strategies into a course, careful planning and preparation are essential. Understanding how to form groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability, resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria, and manage active learning environments are critical to the achievement of a successful co-operative learning experience. Before you begin, you may want to consult several helpful resources which are contained in Appendix N. In addition, the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning can provide faculty with supplementary information and helpful techniques for using co-operative learning or collaborative learning in college classrooms. For copies of these materials call 703-993-8773.

Integrating Technology. Today, educators realize that computer literacy is an important part of a student's education. Integrating technology into a course curriculum when appropriate is proving to be valuable for enhancing and extending the learning experience for faculty and students. Many faculty have found electronic mail to be a useful way to promote student/student or faculty/student communication between class meetings. Others use listserves or on-line notes to extend topic discussions and explore critical issues with students and colleagues, or discipline- specific software to increase student understanding of difficult concepts.

Currently, our students come to us with varying degrees of computer literacy. Faculty who use technology regularly often find it necessary to provide some basic skill level instruction during the first week of class. In the future, we expect that need to decline. For help in integrating technology into a course curriculum contact the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning at 703-993-8773 or the Instructional Development Office (IDO) at 703-993-3141. In addition, watch for information throughout the year about workshops and faculty conversations on the integration of technology, teaching and learning.

Distance Learning. Distance learning is not a new concept. We have all experienced learning outside of a structured classroom setting through television, correspondence courses, etc. Distance learning or distance education as a teaching pedagogy, however, is an important topic of discussion on college campuses today. Distance learning is defined as 'any form of teaching and learning in which the teacher and learner are not in the same place at the same time' (Gilbert, 1995).

Obviously, information technology has broadened our concept of the learning environment. It has made it possible for learning experiences to be extended beyond the confines of the traditional classroom. Distance learning technologies take many forms such as computer simulations, interactive collaboration/discussion, and the creation of virtual learning environments connecting regions or nations. Components of distance learning such as email, listserves, and interactive software have also been useful additions to the educational setting.

For more information about distance learning contact the Instructional Development Office at 703-993-3141 (Fairfax Campus) and watch for workshops and faculty discussions on the topic throughout the year.

Back to Table of Contents

Much of a teacher's success in the classroom is hinged on their use of teaching strategies, or to put it another way, their approach to their teaching, how they implement instructions, how they teach, how they communicate, and how they deliver information, how they communicate data to students.

The different teaching strategies available to the teacher are too numerous to mention all of them here, and indeed, many strategies interlink and may even be used collaboratively within any given lesson. However, using the work of Barry and King (1997:chapter 6) as a starting point, the following is a brief overview of some of the strategies that are more commonly used in the classroom.

Method of implementation:

1. Set the scene
2. The Broadcast
3. Follow-up activity

1. the utilisation of outside sources within a classroom/lesson (video, TV, radio and multimedia)
2. useful for developing and enriching knowledge, skills and attitudes from specialized material and presenters
3. it is a "one-way" form of instruction - students become passive receptors
4. effective but not ideal - used in collaboration with other strategies is perhaps the most desirable choice
5. activities based on the presentation broadcast is the ultimate aim for enabling student learning using this strategy

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The Drill Strategy

Method of implementation:

6. Set the scene
7. Check meaning and understanding
8. Emphasize key learning points
9. Drill
10. Written test
11. Marking and recording

• the method of teaching through repetition
• aims to produce an automatic response (rote)
• continual reinforcement until knowledge is automatically triggered by key words to respondent
• may be ineffective if implementation is allowed to become dull and boring to students
• at risk of no or little understanding from students
• effective if material being taught is understood by learners

Method of implementation:

1. Set the scene
2. Present the material
3. Student activity
4. Check understanding - transfer knowledge to real-life understanding

• the transmittence of information concisely and quickly
• based on prior student knowledge - followed by assimilation through student listening
• poor implemetation may lead to boring, tedious lessons
• lacks interactive input and social factors
• difficult to cater for individual learning needs
• must be implemented in steps and limited to 2-3 key points

Method of implementation:

1. Set the scene
2. Explain and demonstrate the skill/content
3. Student practice with teacher feedback
4. Apply/transfer skill/content in another context

• aims to promote acquisition of new skills through observation and imitation
• used to help develop thinking skills and problem-solving skills
• commonly used in subjects such as, PE, Handwriting, Spelling, Music etc
• does not promote individual learning
• the implementation is crucial, maintaining interest and enthusiasm at all times

Method of implementation:

1. Set the scene
2. Identify items that are relevant to a problem
3. Group these items according to their similarity
4. Label the groups
5. Application and disclosure

• two methods of development - inductively or deductively
• Deductive - identifying the concept to the class and illustrating with examples
• Inductive - identifying the concept through a process of observation and discussion
• major aim is to help students to organize and categorize information or experience into a meaningful intellectual framework
• the major limitation of concept teaching is that it is a process strategy and, therefore, is limited in its application to the acquisition of content or highly specific information
• in presenting this strategy it must be made clear that the concept being taught is worth it; it must have clear characteristics; student involvemnt is a key element; examples must be used.

Method of implementation:

1. Set the scene
2. Prepare to play the simulation
3. Play the simulation
4. Discuss and summarise

• major purpose is to re-create as near as possible, a real life situation or experience
• students learn specific principles, concept /thinking skills in the cognitive domain, psychomotor skills and values/attitudes related to beliefs, consequence, efficacy and empathy
• simulation stratgies are more suited to such subject areas as social studies, arts, langauge arts, and other problem-solving activities
• possible disadvantages may be that they distort reality; become over-competeitive and contain hidden values; they are complex and time-consuiming in preparation
• they must be suited to age and ability level and must have a pre-designed set of objectives.

Method of implementation:

1. Organise the group
2. Set the task
3. Discussion
4. Presentation of findings

• major purpose is to foster and enhance communication skills within the class
• helps promote thinking and decsion-making skills as well as fostering different viewpoints and opinions
• may be used in all key areas of learning
• major limitation is that it is generally not suitable fro younger levels because of the level of reasoning required in order for it to work
• is dependent upon the group routines and social climate of the class
• teachers must be ble to guide and give aid as necessary but the class environment and the groups themselves often determine the outcomes

Method of implementation:

1. The teacher sets a problem
2. The students explore the problem
3. Teacher and students discuss the probem and formulate conclusions

• major purpose is to have students actively involved in their own learning and problem solving
• most suited to subjects that require active learning practices, concept development and discovering the solution to problems
• it is effective in helping students to develop a better understanding of ideas and concepts
• mainly used with abstract concepts, however, concret materials are beneficial, especially for younger students
• major disadvantage is that it is not suitable for teaching a large number of facts in a concie and efficient manner
• without correct teacher-guidance, students are at risk of learning incorrect information
• not suited to students of all levels

http://www.valdosta.peachnet.edu/~whuitt/psy702/cogsys/metacogn.html

Return to: | Overview of the Cognitive System | Educational Psychology Interactive |

Definition

• Knowledge about one's own cognitive system; thinking about one's own thinking; essential skill for learning to learn
• Includes thoughts about (1) what we know or don't know and (2) regulating how we go about learning.

"Metacognitive deficiencies are the problem of the novice, regardless of age. Ignorance is not necessarily age related; rather it is more a function of inexperience in a new (and difficult) problem situation" (A. L. Brown, 1980, p. 475)

• What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?
• Do I know what do I need to know?
• Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
• How much time will I need to learn this?
• What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
• Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
• How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
• How can I spot an error if I make one?
• How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectations/satisfaction?
• How can I spot an error if I make one?
• How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectations/satisfaction?

• Have students monitor their own learning and thinking (Example: have student monitor a peer's learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)
• Have students learn study strategies (e.g., SQ3R, SQ4R)
• Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they have read
• Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures (Important to have relevant knowledge structures well learned)
• Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what's going on around them (Have you asked a good question today?)
• Help students to know when to ask for help (must be able to self-monitor; require students to show how they have attempted to deal with the problem of their own)
• Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations or tasks

• Have students monitor their own learning and thinking (Example: have student monitor a peer's learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)
• Have students learn study strategies (e.g., SQ3R, SQ4R)
• Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they have read
• Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures (Important to have relevant knowledge structures well learned)
• Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what's going on around them (Have you asked a good question today?)
• Help students to know when to ask for help (must be able to self-monitor; require students to show how they have attempted to deal with the problem of their own)
• Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations or tasks

Co-operative learning (sometimes called collaborative learning, which is probably a more accurate term) can be described as learning which occurs as a result of interactions between members of a collective (meaning two of more individuals). In classrooms, learning-related tasks we are most familiar with are laboratory groups in science classes where pairs of students work together to carry out an experiment, although in many cases, this does not represent true collaboration, but rather compartmentalization of work so that individuals do not have a complete understanding of all concepts involved, or inequitable distribution of effort, in which one student does most of the work but also understands more. A critical component of co-operative learning is division of labor by consent, within-group explanations, and sharing of information in equitable ways. Another critical prerequisite for success is the setting up of rewards for both the group and for individuals within the group; that is, each student must feel as though their contribution to the group and their individual contributions will be rewarded.

What might this look like when enacted in our classroom? Let's say, for example, that we are teaching a large lecture course in organismal biology. We might divide the class into groups of 4-5 and provide them with one of the topics or concepts which we will be dealing with in the coming weeks. Each group's job is to provide the rest of the class with an overview of that topic or concept in whatever form they would like. The conditions which must be met are the following:

· First, each group member must participate;

· Second, the presentation or product must reveal the contribution of each group member;

· Third, grading will consist of a group grade, as well as individual grades, the latter being based on a written product each group member turns in and which reflects their own contribution to the final presentation or product.

What does this do for us? It allows us to structure the way a topic is introduced to the class and to link topics or concepts across the semester. Second, it provides students with additional investment in the course. Third, particularly in large classes, it allows students to get to know fairly well at least some other students taking the course. We can choose to alter the groups as the semester progresses, but it's critical to allow students the opportunity to periodically let us know privately how they perceive things in their group are going. Co-operative learning strategies can be extended to homework assignments and other performance assessments (e.g., tests) in which we allow students to work in these groups on particular questions. But again, it is probably wise to include questions that must be answered individually on a test as well. Co-operative learning also can be used in the writing process, where students meet regularly in groups to develop a research proposal. Here they can develop ideas and shape their writing via peer editing and several other group-based strategies.

Some useful references include:
Bonwell, C. C., and Eison, J. A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, D.C.: George Washington University School of Education and Human Development.

Johnson, R. T., Johnson, D. W., and Smith, K. A. (1990). Co-operative learning: An active learning strategy for the college classroom. Baylor Educator, 15, 11-16.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., and Smith, K. A. (1991). Co-operative Learning: Increasing College Faculty Instructional Productivity. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No.4. Washington, D.C.: George Washington University School of Education and Human Development.

Tiberius, R. G. (1990). Small Group Teaching: A Trouble-Shooting Guide. Toronto: OISE Press.

Using structured controversy in the classroom can take many forms. In its most typical form, we select a specific problem (the closer the problem is to multiple issues central to the course the better), it involves providing students with a limited amount of background information and asking them to construct an argument based on this information. This they do by working in groups (and so, it is not unlike the co-operative learning strategy described later).

Let's imagine that we are teaching an undergraduate course in medical ethics. We are about to deal with issues surrounding the problem of organ donation. You introduce the topic briefly, perhaps providing students with essential background concerning, for example, the cost of different types of organ transplants, the availability of donor organs, the probability of success for transplantation of different organs, institutional constraints, etc. Then we set up the following situation: four individuals are on the list of potential recipients of a donor liver. One of these is a white male, 55 years old and a recovering alcoholic; another is a former teacher, 42 years old, married with two young children; the third is a 25-year old prostitute with a history of drug abuse; and the fourth is a 17-year old high school honors student who has just been offered a scholarship at an Ivy-league university. A viable liver has now become available. Each of your students is assigned to a group, each of which represents a member of the hospital medical ethics review board. The job of the board is to decide which of the potential recipients should receive the donor organ. These groups include:

1. Clergy

2. Surgeon

3. Insurance company representative

4. Family member

5. Past recipient of donor liver

6. Chair of the hospital's Board of Directors

Each of these groups will receive a fact sheet providing them with information that they may choose to use in the development of their argument.

After the students have the opportunity (both in and out of class) to develop and present these arguments, it would be useful to have them all write about what factors they feel are important to weigh in making decisions such as these and what they learned from engaging in the process.

Some useful references include:
Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, R.T. (1988). "Critical thinking through structured controversy." Educational Leadership, 58-64.

Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

• · Course begins where the students are, not where the professor is
• · Though students are expected to bring needed skills and background knowledge and to be self-motivated,the professor also accepts responsibilities for motivation, clarity, and diagnostic/supportive teaching
• · Students are treated with the same dignity and respect expected by the professor
• · Individual differences are expected, welcomed, and supported

• · Students create or select additional goals
• · Goals are individualized (different students may have different goals)

• · Everyone knows and uses everyone else's name
• · Everyone knows (and respects) everyone else's background, current position, interests, goals, etc.
• · Professor does no more than 50% of the talking and no more than 75% of the decision making
• · Discussion, group work, and active participation is encouraged and expected
• Activities are problem-centered and student-driven
• Students are expected to be active learners
• · Course is built upon "real" problems that relate to student goals and interests
• · Some "easier" problems are dealt with early in the course and are used to provide "paradigms" and activity models
• · Students have some flexibility in problem selection
• · "Busy work" and unnecessary repetition are minimized
• · Whenever possible, students work at own pace and on own schedule
• · Students are encouraged/required to work together in groups and to provide suggestions, feedback, and support to one another

• Formative developmental "feedback" is emphasized over summative grades
• · Professor's comments focus upon success and suggestions for improvement rather than upon mistakes and "corrections"
• · Students are allowed/expected to revise and resubmit work that does not meet expected standards, and summative grades are based upon revised work
• · Professor's role is primarily to help students toward success, not merely to point out their shortcomings; students should build pride in accomplishments and existing abilities
• · All assessment should be "criterion-referenced" rather than "normative"
• · Assessment involves facts/concepts/applications
• · Assessment is often "authentic"

• Students are active creators of knowledge, not passive receivers of information
• · Multiple answers (rather than one "right answer") are often accepted
• · Emphasis is upon understanding and application rather than upon memorization and repetition
• · Professor teaches disciplinary (subject area) methods and provides access to information; students gather, organize, and use information
• · Professor helps students to understand learning styles and methods and helps students identify and remediate any personal learning problems
• · The methods of the discipline are as (or more) important than the content
• · Professor guides but does not entirely dictate task identification, activities sequencing, and working strategies
• · Newer technologies, media, content, and methods are emphasized
• · Students are allowed broad flexibility and encouraged toward self-direction
• · Professor emphasizes and teaches metacognition

ESL4Kids - primary super! ( att. Errors)

http://members.tripod.com/~ESL4Kids/games.html

Sound formats

http://www.vcu.edu/idc/idcnew/self-study/monographs/formats.htm

The Write Sites For Creative Kids

When pesky adults ask you, "So, what do you want to be when you grow up?" do you blurt out, "I want to be a writer"? If so, you probably already are one. You most likely have a fantastic imagination, a flair for writing poetry and/or creating interesting characters and you may even have entered a few contests. You want to get even better, though, don't you? The best way to improve your skills is to learn all the mechanics of writing -- such as grammar and punctuation -- and practice, practice, practice. There are a number of websites that help kids of all ages become better writers -- and have fun doing it. Some point to chat rooms so budding writers can bounce ideas off each other (and make new friends), some give writing tips from experienced authors and some accept submissions of poetry and short stories to be posted for the world to read.

Learning Online Is Fun

A great place to start is an online writing course for fourth and fifth graders. In this six-week class, kids learn how to write attention-grabbing beginnings and surprise endings, build suspense, show feelings, develop unforgettable characters and much more. For teens and younger kids to get help with all kinds of writing, a writer's workshop provides valuable information.

Something For Everyone

If you don't exactly love the idea of more homework, The Mining Co.'s Guide To Creative Writing For Kids provides links to writing sites for beginners (punctuation quizzes, spelling games, word fun for new readers and more) and pre-teens and teens (learning how a book is published, writers' forums, a young authors' workshop for fourth to seventh graders and more). This site also gives helpful hints on grammar, character development, imagination stimulation and a place to submit your work for posting.

Like To Write? Join The Club

How about joining a club with more than 900 kids from across the globe? In the Young Writer's Clubhouse, chat online with Deborah Morris, an author who wanted to be a writer since she was 11 -- and is writing up a storm for a living. If you think you can't get your work published because you're "just a kid," think again. Also, Deborah gives valuable pointers to succeeding in writing. If you love cash, white-water rafting trips and other fun prizes, there are several writing contests for kids ages 8 to 17. Another online club, The Young Writers Club, features a monthly Web magazine published by club members and produced entirely by children. Most of the authors are in the 7-to-15 age group, but all contributions are welcome. One activity fosters kids sharing their work to help each other improve their writing abilities.

Wanna See Your Literary Gem In Lights, Huh?

There are plenty of websites for you to get that poem or short story of yours posted for the world to see. Stone Soup is an online magazine written and illustrated by kids ages 8 to 13 -- it inspires young readers and writers all over the world. Another invigorating site is KidPub, with more than 18,000 stories written from kids of all ages. Here, young authors can hone in on their clever imaginations by adding the next paragraph to the KidPub crew's never-ending story, or hook up with a pen pal with the same interest in writing. So you're a poet and you know it? If you want other people to, visit KidStuff's Creative Writing Corner. The same goes for Positively Poetry, designed for kids 5 to 15 to share their writing abilities. Each month, an "Editor's Choice" poem is selected. For the K-to-12 crowd, head on over to Poetry Pals, where you can read poems on different themes by kids around the world and send in your own work. Some poetry project pages even include pictures and animations. In ToonaCat's Writing Place, kids can not only learn about all different kinds of poetry, but also try their hands at crafting their own. Kids also can submit stories, and if they're experiencing a bit of the ol' writer's block, ToonaCat lends a paw, so to speak.

Young journalists might want to surf over to NewsWave, an online news magazine created by kids for kids ages 8 to16. Cyberkids is an online magazine for kids by kids, too, and its mission is "to give kids a voice and an interactive place to express their creativity."

You want it all, huh? The Inkspot is a vast index of Internet resources for young writers, such as guides, contests and links to many online magazines that publish kids' writings.

Whatever sites you choose, you can be sure to improve your writing skills, get your work posted online (you might even be asked to sign autographs), make new friends and have a great time doing what you love. So, when you're asked what you want to be when you grow up, you can say, with confidence, "I'm a writer -- but when I grow up, I want to be a better one."

--guest columnist Lori A. Cascone